Dalam penilaian real estate, kualitas dan kuantitas data yang tersedia sama pentingnya dengan metode dan teknik yang digunakan untuk memproses data dan menyelesaikan tugas penilaian. Oleh karena itu, kemampuan untuk membedakan berbagai jenis data, menyelidiki sumber-sumber data yang dapat dipercaya, dan melakukan manajemen informasi merupakan hal yang penting dalam praktek penilaian.

Berurusan dengan data pasar, data properti, dan data transaksi yang dibutuhkan dalam proses penilaian meliputi tiga proses yang saling berhubungan:
Mengumpulkan data
Mengelola data
Menganalisa data

Penilai memerlukan keterampilan untuk melakukan penelitian dan mengambil keputusan untuk mengarahkan langkah awal dalam pengumpulan data, menganalisa dan mengelola informasi secara efisien.

Mendapatkan semua data yang penting tetap menjadi sebuah tantangan bagi penilai, bahkan dengan inovasi teknologi yang dapat memudahkan proses penilaian. Pengumpulan data dapat sama atau berbeda dari satu negara ke negara lain. Kebanyakan negara maju telah menyediakan records properti kepada penilai, namun masih banyak negara yang tidak menyediakannya, sehingga data penjualan hanya dapat dikumpulkan dari pelaku pasar yang sesungguhnya. Perlu disadari, bahwa standar penilai profesional dan program pemerintah dalam menentukan NJOP untuk keperluan Pajak Bumi dan Bangunan memerlukan tingkat pengumpulan data dan dokumentasi yang berbeda.

Sebelum memulai suatu proses pengumpulan data, penilai terlebih dahulu harus menentukan jenis data yang akan berguna dalam proses penilaian. Jenis data tersebut misalnya data umum, data khusus, dan data penawaran & permintaan (supply and demand).





Sebelum menganalisa data, penilai perlu mengolah semua data khusus yang telah dikumpulkan, antara lain adalah:
Kumpulan / tabel data pasar termasuk worksheet survei biaya dalam pendekatan biaya.
Format penyesuaian dalam pendekatan data pasar
Reconstructed operating statement (Data operasional yang sudah disusun kembali) dalam pendekatan kapitalisasi pendapatan

Ketiganya disusun secara seksama untuk dapat memberikan gambaran data pasar yang dikelompokkan menjadi data “yang dapat digunakan” dan “dapat diukur”. Jika informasi yang akan dianalisa cukup kompleks, maka penilai perlu mendesain beberapa tabel data pasar untuk memisahkan dan mempelajari data tertentu.

Setelah dikumpulkan dan dikelola, data dapat dianalisa untuk memecahkan masalah dalam penilaian. Namun perlu disadari bahwa sebenarnya masing-masing pendekatan merupakan suatu bentuk analisa yang bersandar pada data pasar untuk mendukung kesimpulan nilai yang dihasilkan. Keabsahan masing-masing kesimpulan nilai dari pendekatan yang dilakukan (dan yang paling penting adalah pendapat nilai pasar) sangat tergantung pada baik tidaknya data pasar yang dapat mendukung kesimpulan tersebut.

Analisa data harus mengaitkan data ekonomi dan keuangan pasar real estate secara umum dan pasar secara khusus di mana properti yang dinilai itu terletak. Contoh: jika data ekonomi menunjukkan tingkat lowongan kerja menurun, bagaimana hal itu dapat mempengaruhi pasar secara umum dan jenis properti yang dinilai, serta properti yang dinilai itu sendiri.

(Land Development Method)

Metod Pengembangan adalah metode penilaian property (biasanya berupa tanah kosong yang sangat luas) dengan cara mengasumsikan tanah tersebut dikembangkan. Beberapa criteria suatu tanah yang dapat dinilai dengan metode pengembangan tanah adalah :

- Digunakan bila tanah terletak pada daerah berkembang
Tanah yang luas pada daerah berkembang, biasanya sulit mencari data pembanding

- Data harga pasar yang wajar di daerah sekitar sulit diperoleh
Harga tanah dengan luas yang lebih kecil tersedia, tentunya tidak sebanding dengan aset yang dinilai.

- Data harga jual dari tanah yang telah dikembangkan tersedia
Dikarenakan daerah tersebut berkembang, umumnya tanah yang luas sudah terjual dan dijadikan sebagai kawasan perumahan / industri .

- Memiliki site plan yang telah disetujui oleh Pemda setempat
Akan sangat akurat apabila tanah yang dinilai sudah memperoleh ijin dari pihak berwenang atas peruntukan lahan.

- Mempunyai potensi untuk dikembangkan sebagai daerah pemukiman, pertokoan atau perindustrian, atau lainnya

- Lokasi Tanah memiliki aksesibilitas yang baik





Definition

(Source :http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Market_value)

International Valuation Standards defines market value as "the estimated amount for which a property should exchange on the date of valuation between a willing buyer and a willing seller in an arm’s-length transaction after proper marketing wherein the parties had each acted knowledgeably, prudently, and without compulsion."

Market value is a concept distinct from market price, which is “the price at which one can transact”, while market value is “the true underlying value” according to theoretical standards. The concept is most commonly invoked in inefficient markets or disequilibrium situations where prevailing market prices are not reflective of true underlying market value. For market price to equal market value, the market must be informationally efficient and rational expectations must prevail. Market value is also distinct from fair value in that fair value depends on the parties involved, while market value does not. For example, IVS currently notes market value "requires the assessment of the price that is fair between two specific parties taking into account the respective advantages or disadvantages that each will gain from the transaction. Although market value may meet these criteria, this is not necessarily always the case. Fair value is frequently used when undertaking due diligence in corporate transactions, where particular synergies between the two parties may mean that the price that is fair between them is higher than the price that might be obtainable in the wider market. In other words "special value" may be generated. market value requires this element of "special value" to be disregarded, but it forms part of the assessment of fair value

DCF atau dikenal juga dengan metode Arus Kas yang didiskonto. Dimana arus kas dapat lebih memberikan gambaran pendapatan suatu properti baik sekarang maupun yang akan datang, dengan memperhatikan data-data masa lampau. Metode DCF sangat sesuai untuk property yang menghasilkan pendapatan dengan kondisi perekonomian yang tidak stabil. Proyeksi arus kas sangat penting dalam penilaian untuk property yang menghasilkan pendapatan, oleh karena itu diperlukan :
- Prinsip antisipasi (principle of anticipation)
- Penyesuaian seluruh data pasar
- Analisa data pasar secara cermat
- Data pasar harus akurat
- Jangka waktu proyeksi yang dapat dianggap memenuhi prediksi arus kas (umumnya 5 – 10 tahun)


Proyeksi Pendapatan
Langkah Dasar Perhitungan proyeksi pendaptan
• Menentukan proyeksi arus kas bersih
• Menentukan tingkat diskonto
• Mengkonversi arus kas bersih dengan diskonto sesuai periode waktunya
• Mengkapitalisasi arus kas bersih periode kekal dengan cap-rate yang sesuai
• Mengkonversi arus kas setelah waktu spesifik (periode kekal) dengan faktor
diskonto
• Menjumlahkan arus kas bersih periode kini dengan periode kekal






Real Estate Investment in a Recession

Have you ever noticed how buyers flock to purchase property in droves when real estate prices are at their peak, yet buyers are relatively scarce when prices are most affordable? Notwithstanding the fact that this occurrence defies the generally accepted investment strategy to buy low and sell high”, one can’t help but wonder why attending social gatherings during the real estate boom years of 2005 and 2006 would inevitably lead to engaging in a conversation about someone’s real estate investment and the promise of future profits to be derived from the venture. It’s not all that surprising that many of those recently boasting about their real estate exploits have softened their tone while seasoned investors, dormant for the past six or seven years, have begun to once again start purchasing lucrative investment property. Despite news about the recent real estate and financial industry tribulations that the public is seemingly bombarded with every day, the last few months of 2008 provided a relatively quiet, yet dramatic, surge in real estate sales.

The National Association of REALTORS® (NAR) has reported that residential home sales have increased by an astonishing 115% when the last quarter of 2007 is compared against the same period for 2008. Have the experienced investors purchasing all of this property been ignorant to the steady stream of media reports warning of declines in real estate values? The answer is no, they have simply been waiting for the right time to emerge like a small swarm of locusts to steadily reap houses for sale like crop. In fact, their buying presence has been so prominent that national housing inventories of homes for sale have significantly decreased during 2008’s final quarter, a reliable sign that demand is beginning to once again catch up with supply.

But how do these brave souls know precisely when they are buying at the bottom of the market? Do they throw caution to the wind and simply force themselves to muster the courage to purchase property despite the fact that values may continue to decline in the future? The simple answer is that savvy real estate investors do not purchase property with the expectation of immediate appreciation in value. Rather, investment real estate should be purchased based on the property’s potential for positive cash-flow. Positive cash-flow occurs when a property’s rental income exceeds the owner’s costs to maintain the property. Consequently, when a property provides a positive cash-flow, a decline in real estate prices is of little concern since the owner can simply enjoy the income his property generates until the market revives and the property can be sold for further profit.

During the real estate boom years our nation became blindly infatuated with the appreciation of real estate prices, which represents the amount of value that a property will gain over time. So called house flippers” brazenly leveraged money to buy numerous properties with the expectation that their values would increase, thus enabling them to sell the properties for handsome profits in a short period of time. These novice real estate quasi-moguls, often addicted to HGTV and other television shows created to promote the industry like Flipping Out and Flip This House, regularly failed to consider property cash-flows prior to making their purchases. Why bother when real estate values will always continue to appreciate, thereby alleviating the need to hold properties for long? After the housing bubble burst, many of these speculators realized that they shouldn’t have built their investment houses out of sticks, and social gatherings became pleasant once again.

Seasoned investors build their investments out of bricks by carefully and conservatively analyzing a property’s cash flow potential prior to purchasing. The primary reason that these investors have been sitting on the sidelines for many years is that most real estate prices have been far too high to generate positive cash-flows and a reasonable return on investment. It hasn’t been until recently that both residential and multi-family housing prices have retreated to levels where rental income will cover monthly mortgage payments and other operating costs. Further, with the construction of new housing and apartments decreasing to a virtual halt, a still rapidly growing local population, and many families displaced from foreclosed properties, an investment property’s owner is free to choose from a tenant base that is now stronger than ever. One can clearly see why a decline in real estate sales prices typically accompanies an increase in monthly rental prices.

No matter what the year 2009 holds in store for real estate investing, it is essential to remember that investing in real estate should always be considered over a long term. Although the opportunity for a quick flip” may present itself, the distinguishing benefit to sound real estate investments is their ability to provide income no matter what the economy throws your way.
(Source : http://www.articlesnatch.com/Article/Real-Estate-Investment-in-a-Recession/457552)

Pendapatan kotor adalah pendapatan dari suatu property yang belum dikurangi dengan biaya-biaya. Pendapatan kotor terdiri dari 2 jenis yaitu

- PGI (potential gross income atau pendapatan kotor potensial), dan
- EGI (effective gross income atau pendapatan kotor efektif)

Potential Gross Income adalah seluruh pendapatan yg diperoleh pada saat tingkat hunian (occupancy rate) mencapai 100% rental space, service charge, dan pendapatan lain-lain), sebelum dikurangi beban operasional.

Effective Gross Income adalah seluruh pendapatan yang diperoleh setelah dikurangi VCL, sebelum dikurangi beban-beban operasional (atau PGI dikurangi dgn VCL)

VCL adalah pengurangan pada PGI yang disebabkan karena kekosongan sewa dan karena adanya sewa yang tak dibayar oleh penyewa (tenant)

Penggunakan Potential Gross Income maupun Effective Gross Income dapat digunakan untuk metode GIM akan tetapi harus konsisten. Jika PGI yang digunakan sebagai dasar penilaian maka GIM harus dihitung dari PGI properti pembanding, Jika EGI yang digunakan sebagai dasar penilaian maka GIM harus dihitung dari EGI properti pembanding






Net present value

Net present value (NPV) or net present worth (NPW)[1] is defined as the total present value (PV) of a time series of cash flows. It is a standard method for using the time value of money to appraise long-term projects. Used for capital budgeting, and widely throughout economics, it measures the excess or shortfall of cash flows, in present value terms, once financing charges are met





Appraisers are legally regulated under federal and state law by USPAP which considers three forms of appraiser engagement by a client: appraisal, review, and consulting. Appraisal is the act or process of estimating value and should be used whenever the appraiser could be perceived as an independent and disinterested party. Review is the act or process of critically studying a report prepared by another. Consulting is the act or process of providing information, analysis of data, and recommendations or conclusions on diversified problems, other than estimating value.
Differentiation among these activities depends upon the purpose and intended use of the results. USPAP recognizes two types of consulting engagements: (1) performing an impartial consulting service as a disinterested third party that responds to the client's stated objective, and (2) performing a consulting service that is intended to facilitate the achievement of the client's objective. If third parties, or the public, would reasonably perceive an appraiser to be acting as a disinterested, objective third party, that is enough to bar the appraiser from acting as an advocate for the client in that particular situation. If a person could be reasonably perceived by others to be acting as a disinterested third party, then the assignment must be performed with impartiality, objectivity, and independence. In either event the appraiser must clearly disclose which role is being performed for the client.

USPAP identifies four defined activities as consulting: market analysis, feasibility analysis, and cash flow/investment analysis.

Market Analysis: In conventional real estate work, market analysis is the study of market conditions for a specific type of property. In appraising mineral properties market analysis must be expanded to include the markets for the mineral products that are expected to be produced from a mineral property.

Feasibility Analysis: Is a study of the cost-benefit relationship of an economic endeavor.

Cash Flow Analysis: Is a study of the anticipated movement of cash into and out of an investment and is closely related to Cash Budget Analysis.

Investment Analysis: Is a study that reflects the relationship between acquisition price and anticipated future benefits of an investment.

Because USPAP defines any activity other than an estimate of value as consulting some of the commonly performed mineral property or mining business consulting services are:

Highest and Best Use Analysis:
v current/interim use. Physically Possible, Legally Permissible, Financially Feasible, and Maximally Productive (optimal/satisficing)

Land Utilization:

Zoning Analysis:

Financing Analysis:

Accounting/Tax Analysis:

Securities Analysis:

Portfolio Analysis:

Mineral Economics Studies:

Mine Economic Studies:

Economic Change Analysis:

Breakeven Analysis:

Productivity Studies:

Availability/Utilization Analysis:

Competitive Position Studies:
Porter's 5-Forces

Transportation Studies:

Royalty, Joint Venture, or other Interest Analysis:

Risk Analysis - Geologic, Technical, Economic, Legal, Socio-Political:
Four Forces +

Mineral Resource/Reserve Estimation, Review, or Audit:

General or Specific Due Diligence:

General or Specific Geological Analyses:
Mining Geology

GIM – Konsep
Suatu property dapat menghasilkan pendapatan kotor sebesar Rp 100jt/thn kemudian dijual, laku dengan harga Rp 800 jt maka

GIM = Rp. 800 Juta / Rp 100 Juta

GIM = 8

Dari kasus diatas, GIM sebesar 8 berarti harga jual properti tsb adalah 8x (8 kali) pendapatan kotor per tahunnya. GIM sering adiartikan sebagai pengali pendapatan kotor. Sedangkan untuk pengali sewa kotor, sering diistilahkan dengan GRM (Gross Rent Multiplier)


Prosedur Penerapan Penilaian dengan GIM

Nilai suatu properti diperoleh dgn mengalikan pendapatan kotor tahunan yg diharapkan (expected annual gross income) dgn GIM yg diperoleh dari data penjualan properti pembanding
Atau, jika dinyatakan dlm rumus:

V = GI X GIM

Contoh Penerapan Penilaian dengan GIM
Anda diminta menilai sebuah ruko yg disewakan. Ruko tersebut diperkirakan dapat menghasilkan pendapatan kotor per tahun sebesar Rp 100 juta. GIM dari data pembanding (ruko-ruko yg disewakan) adalah 6.50
V = GI x GIM
= Rp 100 jt x 6.5
= Rp 650 jt
Jadi dengan menggunakan GIM, nilai ruko tersebut adalah Rp 650 jt






Gross Rent Multipler

The GRM is simply the ratio of the monthly (or annual) rent divided into the selling price. If several similar properties have sold in the market recently, then the GRM can be computed for those and applied to the anticipated monthly rent for the subject property. GRM is useful for rental houses, duplexes, and simple commercial properties when used as a supplement to other more well developed methods.






Mining's Hard Rock Legacy

In the Malakoff diggings of California's Sierra Nevada lies the wreckage of an old dream. It is a bizarre man-made canyon sculpted into grim spires and fins, cream-white surfaces streaked with red, the whole tortured architecture capped by a fringe of nearly black forest.


More than a century ago miners sent water racing down the Sierra through networks of ditches and wooden flumes. The water, building pressure with every mile (1.6 kilometers), funneled into huge nozzles and from them struck the ancient slopes of the foothills with such terrible force that they dissolved into mud that oozed like surging lava over wooden riffles. The riffles were in place to separate gold from the slurry, which was sent through a system of tunnels into the South Yuba River and from there, via the Feather, to the Sacramento—so much slurry that with every spring flood the productive farms of the Sacramento Valley were smothered under yet another layer of mud.

Such unregulated destruction is no longer permitted in the United States. But the Malakoff site still dribbles slurry into the watershed of the Sacramento, and this weird, human-carved landscape remains as a useful symbol of the West's long infatuation with the dream of treasure and with the legislation created to service that obsession: the General Mining Law of 1872, one of the oldest land laws still on the books.

The law was designed to promote and codify the use of public lands for mining purposes, and in its major provisions it did so with admirable simplicity. It declares all federal land not otherwise restricted, as in national parks and other reservations, be open to the prospecting and discovery of gold, silver, copper, iron, nickel, and other hardrock minerals.

Seperti yang sudah disampaikan sebelumnya bahwa metode kapitalisasi pendapatan dapat menggunakan beberapa cara, yaitu :
a. Kapitalisasi langsung (direct capitalization method)
b. GIM (gross income multiplier)
c. Metode arus kas (discounted cash flow)
d. Metode pengembangan tanah (land development method)
e. Teknik penyisaan (the residual method)

Kesemua metode pendekatan kapitalisasi pendapatan tersebut diterapkan untuk properti yang menghasilkan pendapatan (income producing property)
Contoh properti yg menghasilkan pendapatan:
 Ruko/toko yg disewakan
 Rumah tinggal yg dikontrakkan
 Hotel
 Gedung perkantoran
 Apartemen yg disewakan
 Perkebunan kelapa sawit (contoh-contoh perhitungan akan disampaikan kemudian pada Galleri Penilaian)


A. Kapitalisasi Langsung (Direct Capitalization Method)

Kapitalisasi langsung merupakan bagian dari pendekatan kapitalisasi pendapatan yang didasarkan pada konsep nilai kini (present value) yang digunakan untuk properti yang menghasilkan pendapatan yang bersifat lebih rumit (hotel, perkantoran). Akan tetapi, metode ini hanya dapat digunakan untuk properti yg sdh mapan dan dlm keadaan perekonomian yg stabil Serta menghasilkan pendapatan yang tetap secara terus menerus pada jangka waktu yang sangat lama (Perpetuity).

Konsep Jumlah Nilai Kini
Nilai property merupakan jumlah nilai kini (present value) dari seluruh pendapatan property yang akan diperoleh di masa mendatang, didiskon dengan suatu tingkat diskonto (r)

Penyederhanaan
Dengan 2 asumsi:
 Pendapatan konstan (I1 = I2 = I3 = In)
 Umur properti tak terhingga (n = ¥)
Maka rumus: V = I / R



Digunakan bila :
- Pendapatan bersih pertahun dianggap tetap, tidak pernah berubah
- Lamanya investasi sifatnya tak terhingga atau menerus (Perpetuity)

V = I / R

V = Nilai Pasar Properti (Rp)
I = Pendapatan Bersih Tahunan (Rp)
R = Tingkat Kapitalisasi (%)




Income approach

The Income Approach is one of three major groups of methodologies, called valuation approaches, used by appraisers. It is particularly common in commercial real estate appraisal and in business appraisal. The fundamental math is similar to the methods used for financial valuation, securities analysis, or bond pricing. However, there are some significant and important modifications when used in real estate or business valuation.

While there are quite a few acceptable methods under the rubric of the income approach, most of these methods fall into three categories: direct capitalization, discounted cash flow, and gross income multiplier.


Direct Capitalization
This is simply the product of dividing the annual net operating income (NOI) by the appropriate capitalization rate (CAP rate). For income producing real estate, the NOI is the net income of the real estate (but not the business interest) plus any interest expense and non-cash items (e.g. -- depreciation) minus a reserve for replacement. The CAP rate may be determined in one of several ways, including market extraction, band-of-investments, or a built-up method. When appraising complex property, or property which has a risk-adjustment due to unusual factors (i.e. -- contamination), a risk-adjusted cap rate is appropriate.[1] An implicit assumption in direct capitalization is that the cash flow is a perpetuity and the cap rate is a constant. If either cash flows or risk levels are expected to change, then direct capitalization fails and a discounted cash flow method must be used.

In UK practice, Net Income is capitalised by use of market-derived yields. If the property is rack-rented then the All Risks Yield will be used. However, if the passing rent differs from the Estimated Rental Value (ERV), then either the Term & Reversion, Layer or Equivalent Yield methods will be employed. In essence, these entail discounting the different income streams - that of the current or passing rent and that of the reversion to the full rental value - at different adjusted yields.

However, capitalization rate inherently includes the investment-specific risk premium. Each investor may have a different view of risk and, therefore, arrive at a different capitalization rate for a given investment. The relationship becomes clear when the capitalization rate is derived from the discount rate using the build-up cost of capital model. The two are identical whenever the earnings growth rate equals

Pendekatan Kapitalisasi Pendapatan (Income Approach) berdasarkan pada pola pikir hubungan antara pendapatan dari properti dan nilai dari properti itu sendiri.
Nilai dari properti tergantung pada kemampuan properti itu untuk menghasilkan keuntungan. Metode ini dikenal juga sebagai metode kapitalisasi karena pendapatan bersih yang dihasilkan oleh suatu properti dikapitalisasi menjadi nilai kini melalui perhitungan matematis yang disebut dengan kapitalisasi

Formula yang mendasari metode ini adalah

V = I/R Dimana, V= Nilai, I = Pendapatan, R= tingkat bunga


Tahapan proses penilaian dengan metode pendekatan kapitalisasi pendapatan adalah sebagai berikut :

1. Menghitung pendapatan kotor dari property (Gross income potensial)
2. Pendapatan kotor dikurangi kekosongan & kerugian gedung
3. Diperoleh pendapatan kotor efektif (efektif gross income)
4. Pendapatan kotor efektif dikurangi biaya operasional (operating expenses)
5. Diperoleh pendapatan bersih property (net operating income)
6. Diproses dengan :

- Teknik penyisaan tanah
- Teknik penyisaan bangunan
- Teknik penyisaan properti


Atau dapat disimpulkan langkah-langkah dasar yang dilakukan, yaitu :

1. Menghitung pendapatan kotor

2. Menghitung biaya-biaya

3. Menghitung Pendapatan bersih tahunan

4. Proses kapitalisasi


Metode kapitalisasi pendapatan dapat menggunakan beberapa cara, yaitu :

1. GIM (gros income multiplier)

2. Metode Arus kas (discounted cash flow)

3, Metode Pengembangan Tanah (land development method)

4. Teknik Penyisaan (the residual method)





Real estate appraisal

Real estate appraisal, property valuation or land valuation is the practice of developing an opinion of the value of real property, usually its Market Value. The need for appraisals arises from the heterogeneous nature of property as an investment class: no two properties are identical, and all properties differ from each other in their location - which is one of the most important determinants of their value. So there cannot exist a centralised Walrasian auction setting for the trading of property assets, as there exists for trade in corporate stock. The absence of a market-based pricing mechanism determines the need for an expert appraisal/valuation of real estate/property.

Although some areas require no license or certification at all, a real estate appraisal is generally performed by a licensed or certified appraiser (in many countries known as a Property Valuer or Land Valuer and in British English as a "valuation surveyor"). If the appraiser's opinion is based on Market Value, then it must also be based on the Highest and Best Use of the real property. For mortgage valuations of improved residential property in the US, the appraisal is most often reported on a standardized form, such as the Uniform Residential Appraisal Report.[1] Appraisals of more complex property (e.g. -- income producing, raw land) are usually reported in a narrative appraisal report.


The income capitalization approach

The income capitalization approach (often referred to simply as the "income approach") is used to value commercial and investment properties. Because it is intended to directly reflect or model the expectations and behaviors of typical market participants, this approach is generally considered the most applicable valuation technique for income-producing properties, where sufficient market data exists to supply the necessary inputs and parameters for this approach.
In a commercial income-producing property this approach capitalizes an income stream into a value indication. This can be done using revenue multipliers or capitalization rates applied to the first-year Net Operating Income. The Net Operating Income (NOI) is gross potential income (GPI), less vacancy and collection loss (= Effective Gross Income) less operating expenses (but excluding debt service, income taxes, and/or depreciation charges applied by accountants).
Alternatively, multiple years of net operating income can be valued by a discounted cash flow analysis (DCF) model. The DCF model is widely used to value larger and more expensive income-producing properties, such as large office towers. This technique applies market-supported yields (or discount rates) to future cash flows (such as annual income figures and typically a lump reversion from the eventual sale of the property) to arrive at a present value indication.

Dengan mengunakan Metode Kalkulasi biaya, Nilai properti (Tanah dan Bangunan) diperoleh dengan menganggap tanah sebagai tanah kosong, nilai tanah dihitung dengan menggunakan metode perbandingan data pasar (market data approach). Sedangkan nilai bangunan dihitung dengan metode kalkulasi Biaya. Nilai pasar bangunan dihitung dengan menghitung biaya reproduksi baru (RCN) bangunan pada saat penilaian dikurangi penyusutan.

Rumus Umum :
 Nilai Properti = Nilai Tanah + ( Biaya Reproduksi Baru (RCN)-Penyusutan)


Langkah-langkah yang diperlukan:

► Hitung nilai tanah dengan perbandingan data pasar, dengan menganggap tanh sebagai tanah kosong dan tersedia untuk dikembangkan sesuai dengan prinsip Highest and Best Use

► Hitung biaya realisasi baru dari bangunan & prasarana

► Hitung semua penyusutan oleh semua penyebab (fisik, fungsional dan ekonomis)

► Kurangi biaya realisasi baru dengan besarnya penyusutan akan diperoleh nilai pasar bangunan

► Nilai pasar tanah di tambah nilai pasar bangunan sama dengan nilai properti dengan methode pendekatan biaya



Menghitung Biaya Pengganti Baru (Replacement Cost New)

Dalam menghitung biaya pengganti baru terdapat 4 macam metode yang dapat digunakan, yaitu

1. Metode survey kuantitas (quantity survey method)

2. Metode unit terpasang (unit inplace method)

3. Methode meter persegi (square meter method)

4. Metode Index biaya (Index method)


Menghitung Penyusutan Bangunan/Depresiasi

Penyusutan adalah pengurangan nilai dari biaya pembuatan baru. Dalam melakukan penilaian dengan pendekatan Kalkulasi Biaya (Cost Approach), diperlukan suatu tahapan yang cukup penting, yaitu memperkirakan besarnya penyusutan atau depresiasi dari bangunan untuk dapat memperoleh nilai pasar dari bangunan atau nilai pasar dari properti yang dinilai. Depresiasi dari bangunan tidak hanya dipengaruhi oleh umur bangunan saja, tetapi juga keadaan bangunan, walaupun bangunan dalam keadaan 100% baru. Karena dalam penilaian yang kita tentukan adalah nilai bangunan bukan biaya membangun baru bangunan. Ingat bahwa biaya membangun bangunan tidak sama dengan nilai bangunan. Bangunan akan mempunyai nilai bila bangunan tersebut mempunyai kegunaan bagi manusia.

Terdapat 3 Macam Penyusutan/Depresiasi bangunan, yaitu :

1. Kerusakan fisik (physcal deterioration)
contohnya rusak, lapuk, retak, mengeras atau kerusakan pada strukturnya

2. Kemunduran Fungsional (functional obsolescence)
contohnya, perencanaan yang kurang baik, ketidakseimbangan yang berhubungan dengan ukuran, model, bentuk, umur dan lainnya

3. Kemunduran Ekonomic (economic obsolescence)
contohnya perubahan sosial, peraturan-peraturan pemerintah dan peraturan lain yg membatasi peruntukan dan lain-lain.


Ditinjau dari sumber penyusutan, penyusutan fisik dan kemunduran fungsional dipengaruhi dari dalam (internal) sedangkan kemunduran ekonomis dari luar properti (external)

Rumus umum menghitung depresiasi / penyusutan

1. Kerusakan fisik


Penyusutan fisik = (umur efektif / umur manfaat) X 100%


2. Kemunduran fungsional & ekonomis

Kemunduran fungsional / kemunduran ekonomis =

% kemunduran fungsional/ekonomis X (100% - %penyusutan fisik)




The cost approach

The cost approach was formerly called the summation approach. The theory is that the value of a property can be estimated by summing the land value and the depreciated value of any improvements. The value of the improvements is often referred to by the abbreviation RCNLD (reproduction cost new less depreciation or replacement cost new less depreciation). Reproduction refers to reproducing an exact replica. Replacement cost refers to the cost of building a house or other improvement which has the same utility, but using modern design, workmanship and materials. In practice, appraisers use replacement cost and then deduct a factor for any functional disutility associated with the age of the subject property.
In most instances when the cost approach is involved, the overall methodology is a hybrid of the cost and sales comparison approaches. For example, while the replacement cost to construct a building can be determined by adding the labor, material, and other costs, land values and depreciation must be derived from an analysis of comparable data.
The cost approach is considered reliable when used on newer structures, but the method tends to become less reliable for older properties. The cost approach is often the only reliable approach when dealing with special use properties (e.g. -- public assembly, marinas).

Metode Penilaian aset dibagi menjadi 3 kelompok :

1. Metode Perbandingan Data Pasar (Market Data Approcah)
2. Metode Kalkulasi Biaya (Cost Approach)
3. Metode Pendekatan Pendapatan (Income Approach)

Metode Perbandingan Data Pasar (Market Data Approcah)

Metode perbandingan data pasar atau sering disebut juga sebagai metode perbandingan harga jual (sales comparation method) atau metode perbandingan data langsung (direct market comparation method) adalah metode penilaian yang dilakukan dengan cara membandingkan secara langsung properti yang dinilai dengan data properti yang sejenis yaitu dengan cara Penilai harus mendapat 3 atau lebih data banding yang telah terjual atau sedang ditawarkan untuk dijual yang sejenis terhadap properti yang akan dinilai kemudian dibuat penyesuaiannya terhadap property yang dinilai

Harga Jual Property yang sebanding +/- penyesuaian = Indikasi Nilai dari property

Langkah-langkah yang diperlukan dalam metode ini adalah :

1. Tahap Pengumpulan data
Kumpulan data dicatat dalam buku data.
Sumber-sumber data dpt dihimpun dari :
- Broker
- Developer
- Iklan, surat kabar, majalah, papan pengumuman (langsung tinjau kelokasi)
- Arsip hasil penilaian
- Investor

2. Tahap Analisa data
Data yang dipergunakan harus memenuhi syarat-syarat dibawah ini, yaitu :
- Data tersebut diperoleh dari transaksi jual beli tanpa paksaan
- Data transaksi Jual beli yang belum lama berlangsung
- Data jual beli tersebut harus punya kesamaan dalam hal peruntukan, bentuk tanah, lokasi yang sejenis, sifat-sifat fisik & sosial, ukuran/luas, cara jual beli

3. Tahap Penyesuaian
Penyesuaian untuk perbedaan yang ada, berdasarkan pada waktu, lokasi dan lainnya.


Metode Penyesuaian

Metode dalam tahap penyesuaian ini terdapat 3 macam metode, yaitu:

1. Metoda tambah kurang (Pluses and minuses method)
Artinya penyesuaian langsung dibandingkan secara keseluruhan kelebihan dan kekurangan dengan data-data pembanding yang ada.

Data 1 Data 2 Data 3
Harga jual Rp. 100 jt Rp. 108 jt Rp. 98 jt
Nilai indikasi Rp.104 jt Rp. 106 jt Rp. 102 jt
Penyesuaian dilakukan dengan cara pembebanan.
Misalnya: Properti yang paling mendekati adalah no.2 diambil 40% no. 1 & 3 = 30%

Jadi Nilai Pasar :
30% x 104 jt = 31.200.000
40% x 106 jt = 42.400.000
30% x 102 jt = 30.000.000
104.200.000

2. Metode jumlah rupiah (Rupiah Amount Method)

Data 1 Data 2 Data 3
Harga jual Rp. 100 jt Rp. 108 jt Rp. 98 jt
Penyesuaian + 5 j 0 + 8 jt
Lokasi - 1 jt 0 0
Ukuran 0 0 - 4 jt
Kondisi perlengkap 0 0 0
Mutu bangunan 0 - 2 jt 0
Total penyesuaian + Rp. 4 jt -Rp. 2 jt Rp. 4 jt
Nilai indikasi Rp. 104 jt Rp. 106 jt Rp. 102 jt

Dengan cara pembebanan :

Nilai Pasar:
30% x Rp. 104 jt = Rp. 31.200.000
40% X Rp. 106 jt = Rp. 42.400.000
30% x Rp. 102 jt = Rp. 30.000.000
= Rp.104.200.000

3. Metode Persentase (Percentage Method)

Data 1 Data 2 Data 3
Harga jual Rp. 100 jt Rp. 108 jt Rp. 98 jt
Penyesuaian 5% 0% 8%
Lokasi -1% 0% 0%
Ukuran 0% 0% -4%
% Kondisi pelengkap 0% 0% 0%
Mutu bangunan 0% -4% 0%
Total penyesuaian 4% -4% 4%
Nilai indikasi Rp. 104 jt Rp. 105.840 jt Rp.101.920 jt
Dengan cara pembebanan :

Nilai Pasar :
30% x Rp. 104 jt = Rp. 31.200.000
40% x Rp. 105.840 jt = Rp. 42.336.000
30% x Rp. 101.920 jt = Rp. 30.429.000
= Rp. 104.000.000




The Sales Comparison Approach

The sales comparison approach in a real estate appraisal is based primarily on the principle of substitution. This approach assumes a prudent individual will pay no more for a property than it would cost to purchase a comparable subsitute property. The approach recognizes that a typical buyer will compare asking prices and seek to purchase the property that meets his or her wants and needs for the lowest cost. In developing the sales comparison approach, the state licensed real estate appraiser attempts to interpret and measure the actions of parties involved in the marketplace, including buyers, sellers, and investors.
Method of Data Collection Data are collected on recent sales of properties similar to the subject being valued, called comparables. Sources of comparable data include real estate publications, public records, buyers, seller, real estate brokers and/or agents, appraisers, and others. Important details of each comparable sale is described in the appraisal report. Since comparable sales are not always identical to the subject property, adjustments are sometimes make for date of sale, location, style, bathrooms, square foot, site size, etc. The main idea is to simulate the price that would have been paid if each comparable sale were identical to the subject property.If the adjustment to the comparable is superior to the subject, a downward adjustment is necessary. Likewise, if an the adjustment to the comparable is inferior to the subject, an upward adjustment is necessary. From the analysis of the group of adjusted sales prices of the comparable sales, the state licensed real estate appraiser selects an indicator of value that is representative of the subject property.
Steps in the Sales Comparison Approach 1. Research the market to obtain information pertaining to sales, listings, pending sales that are similar to the subject property. 2. Investigate the market data to determine whether they are factually correct and accurate. 3. Determine relevant units of comparison (e.g., sales price per square foot), and develop a compararive analysis for each. 4. Compare the subject and comparable sales according to the elements of comparison and adjust as appropriate. 5. Reconcile the multiple value indications that result from the adjustment of the comparable sales into a single value indication.

Dalam melakukan penilaian, kita harus mengetahui tahapan-tahapan standard atas penilaian property. Tahapan dari proses penilaian property tersebut adalah :

1. Batasan masalah

Batasan masalah diperlukan agar kita dalam melakukan penilaian, tepat pada sasaran, Tidak memunculkan hal-hal yang tidak perlu dikerjakan yang mengakibatkan bias yang sangat tinggi pada nilai asset. Batasan masalah ini diantaranya adalah :

- Perlunya Indentifikasi property sebelum melakukan survey
- mengumpulkan data umum serta data khusus
- Mengidentifikasi status
- Menentukan tanggal pada saat melakukan penilaian
- Menentukan tujuan dari penilaian yang akan dilakukan
- Batasan nilai

2. Survey & rencana Penilaian
- Data yang diperlukan
- Sumber data
- Kebutuhan tenaga kerja
- Rencana kerja

3. Pengumpulan dan analisa
4. Penerapan 3 pendekatan
5. Perpaduan nilai
6. Kesimpulan nilai/nilai akhir


Pengumpulan dan proses penilaian

Data adalah sesuatu yang diketahui dan dianggap benar, dengan demikian, maka data properti dapat memberikan gambaran tentang properti yang lain. Data ini dapat berupa data tanah atau bangunan. Data tanah misalnya berkaitan dengan luas tanah, keadaan tanah letak tanah, harga tanah permeter persegi dan keadaan lainnya. Data bangunan berkaitan dengan luas bangunan, konstruksi bangunan, jenis finishing yang ada, biaya membangun, terutama untuk bangunan baru dan lainya.


Jika dikaitkan dengan masalah properti, maka data dapat digunakan sebagai :

 Dasar untuk menentukan nilai pasar
 Dasar untuk perhitungan bermacam-macam methode penilaian
 Dasar untuk menentukan peramalan dimasa yang akan datang


Syarat data properti yang baik

1. Harus obyektif
2. Mewakili kondisi dari properti yang dinilai
3. Kesalahan baku dari data harus kecil/standar error hrs kecil
4. Data baru (up to date)
5. Harus relevan


Governing authorities and professional organizations
United States
Appraisal practice in the US is regulated by the various states. The Financial Institutions Reform and Recovery and Enforcement Act (FIRREA) of 1989 demanded all the states to develop systems for licensing and certifying real estate appraisers.[16] To accomplish this, the Appraisal Subcommittee (ASC) was formed, with representatives from the various Federal mortgage regulatory agencies.[17] Thus, currently all the real estate appraisers must be state-licensed and certified. But prior to the 1990s, there were no commonly accepted standards either for appraisal quality or for appraiser licensure. In the 1980s, an ad-hoc committee representing various appraisal professional organizations in the U.S. and Canada met to codify the best practices into what became known as the Uniform Standards of Professional Appraisal Practice (USPAP). The Savings and Loan Crisis in the U.S. resulted in increased Federal regulation of the mortgage lending process via the Financial Institutions Reform, Recovery and Enforcement Act of 1991. A portion of this act required federal lending regulators to adopt appraisal standards. A not-for-profit organization, the Appraisal Foundation (TAF), was formed by the same organizations which had developed USPAP, and the copyright for USPAP was signed over to TAF. Federal oversight of TAF is provided by the Appraisal Subcommittee, made up of representatives of various Federal lending regulators. TAF carries out its work through two boards: the Appraisal Standards Board promulgates and updates USPAP; the Appraisal Qualifications Board (AQB) promulgates minimum recommended standards for appraiser certification and licensure. During the 1990s, all of the states adopted USPAP as the governing standards within their states and developed licensure standards which met or exceeded the recommendations of TAF. Also, the various state and federal courts have adopted USPAP for real estate litigation and all of the federally lending regulators adopt USPAP for mortgage finance appraisal.[17]
In addition, there are professional appraisal organizations, organized as private not-for-profits, which date to the Great Depression of the 1930s. One of the oldest in the U.S. is the American Society of Farm Managers and Rural Appraisers (ASFMRA), founded in 1929.[18] Others were founded as needed and opportunity arose in specialized fields, such as the Appraisal Institute (AI) and the American Society of Appraisers (ASA) founded in the 1930s, the International Right of Way Association and the National Association of Realtors which were founded after World War II. These organizations all existed to establish and enforce standards, but their influence has waned as the government increases appraisal regulation. In March 2007, three of these organizations (ASFMRA, ASA, and AI) announced an agreement in principle to merge. NAIFA (National Association of Independent Fee Appraisers), a charter member of The Appraisal Foundation, helped to write Title XI, the Real Estate Appraisal Reform Amendments. It was founded in 1961.
The best known professional organization of real estate appraisers in America is the Appraisal Institute. It was formed in from the merger of the American Institute of Real Estate Appraisers and the Society of Real Estate Appraisers. Founded along with others in the 1930s, the two organizations merged in the 1990s to form the Appraisal Institute (AI). This group awards two professional designations: SRA, to residential appraisers, and MAI, to commercial appraisers. The Institute has enacted rigorous regulations regarding to the use and display of these designations. For example, contrary to popular belief, "MAI" does not stand for "Member, Appraisal Institute". According to the institute, the letters "do not represent specific words", and an MAI may not use the words "Member, Appraisal Institute" in lieu of the MAI mark. The primary motive for this rule is to prevent dilution of the trademark.
Other leading appraisal organizations include the American Society of Appraisers, National Association of Independent Fee Appraisers, and the National Association of Master Appraisers, which were also founding sponsor-members of the Appraisal Foundation.[19] The Massachusetts Board of Real Estate Appraisers (MBREA), founded in 1934, is the only state appraisal association that has been named a sponsor of the Appraisal Foundation. [20] In recent years, the Royal Institution of Chartered Surveyors (RICS) has become highly regarded in the US, and has formed a collaboration with the Counselors of Real Estate, a division of the National Association of Realtors. RICS, which is headquartered in London, operates on a global scale and awards the designations MRICS and FRICS to Members and Fellows of RICS. The Real Estate Counseling Group of America is a small group of the top appraisers and real estate analysts in the US who collectively have authored a disproportionately large body of appraisal methodology.

Metode Penilaian mesin sama dengan penilaian tanah dan bangunan. Penilaian mesin dapat ditempuh melalui 3 jenis metode penilaian, yaitu :


1. Penilaian dengan pendekatan Perbandingan data Pasar (Market Data Approach)
2. Penilaian dengan pendekatan Kalkulasi BIaya (Cost Approach)
3. Penilaian dengan pendekatan Kapitalisasi Pendapatan (Income Approach)


Dari ketiga pendekatan penilaian tersebut, yang paling lazim dipergunakan khususnya di indonesia adalah penilaian dengan pendekatan Kalkulasi biaya (Cost Approach). Penggunakan metode Penilaian tersebut dikarenakan data-data penunjang yang diperlukan dalam melakukan proses penilaian dengan mempergunakan metode penilaian perbandingan data pasar dan metode penilaian kapitalisasi pendapatan terbatas atau langka.

1. Penilaian Dengan Pendekatan Perbandingan Data Pasar (Market Data Approach)
Dalam penilaian dengan pendekatan perbandingan data pasar, nilai mesin ditentukan berdasarkan pada perbandingan terhadap data transaksi jual-beli yang baru terjadi atas mesin dan peralatan yang sejenis, dengan penyesuaian secukupnya terhadap perbedaan-perbedaan yang ada.

Kesulitan yang dihadapi dalam melakukan penilaian mesin dan peralatannya melalui pendekatan perbandingan data pasar, khususnya di indonesia adalah tidak adanya pasar jual-beli dari mesin-mesin bekas pakai, terlebih lagi untuk mesin-mesin yang bersifat khusus. Karena alasan ini maka penilaian dengan pendekatan perbandingan data pasar jarang dilakukan dalam penilaian mesin dan peralatannya terkecuali untuk jenis mesin tertentu seperti pembangkit daya listrik dengan kapaitas rendah serta kendaraan bermotor yang data pembandingnya mudah diperoleh.


2. Penilaian Dengan Pendekatan Kalkulasi Biaya (Cost Approach)
Prinsip dasar penilaian dengan pendekatan kalkulasi biaya adalah menentukan besarnya biaya reproduksi baru serta biaya besarnya penyusutan yang telah terjadi dari suatu mesin atau peralatannya. Pengurangan biaya reproduksi baru dengan penyusutan yang telah terjadi adalah merupakan Nilai Wajar dari mesin tersebut.

Istilah Biaya Reproduksi Baru (Cost of reproduction , new) sebenarnya kurang tepat digunakan dalam penilaian mesin dan peralatannya karena mesin tidak dapat direproduksi atau dibuat ulang tetapi diganti dengan yang serupa, sehingga istilah Biaya Pengganti Baru (Cost of Replacement New) lebih tepat dipakai. Dalam hal ini dapat dikecualikan untuk mesin yang dirancang khusus untuk penggunaan tertentu dimana tidak dapoat digantikan dengan unit yang sama tetapi harus direproduksi.

Salah satu kelemahan dari metode penilaian ini adalah bahwasanya nilai yang dihasilkan tidak mencerminkan nilai ekonomis sesungguhnya dan nilai pasar dari mesin-mesin yang dinilai. Oleh karena itu nilai wajar yang dihasilkan sering disebut sebagai Nilai Wajar Dalam Penggunaan atau Owner Value, artinya nilai mesin lebih merefleksikan keuntungan ekonomis yang dihasilkan oleh mesin tersebut selama penggunaannya, tentunya bagi si pemilik atau si pengelola. Dalam hal ini tampak sekali adanya unsur subjektivitas dalam penentuan nilainya.


3. Penilaian Dengan Pendekatan Kapitalisasi Pendapatan (Income Approach)
Dalam metode penilaian ini, nilai mesin diperoleh berdasarkan pada proyeksi kemampuan mesin tersebut untuk menghasilkan pendapatan selama sisa umur ekonomisnya. Proyeksi pendapatan ini kemudian dikapitalisasi dengan cara tertentu menjadi Nilai Wajar dari mesin tersebut.

Pada kenyataannya, jarang sekali terdapat mesin yang secara tersendiri dapat menghasilkan pendapatan, tetapi selalu terkait dengan fasilitas produksi lainnya, sehingga sulit untuk memperhitungkan besarnya pendapatan yang murni dihasilkan oleh mesin tersebut, oleh karena itu penilaian dengan pendekatan kapitalisasi pendapatan jarang dipergunakan dalam penilaian mesin dan peralatannya.




UK valuation methods

In the United Kingdom, valuation methodology has traditionally been classified into five methods:
1. Comparable method. Used for most types of property where there is good evidence of previous sales. This is analogous to the sales comparison approach outlined above.
2. Investment/income method. Used for most commercial (and residential) property that is producing future cash flows through the letting of the property. If the current Estimated Rental Value (ERV) and the passing income are known, as well as the market-determined equivalent yield, then the property value can be determined by means of a simple model. Note that this method is really a comparison method, since the main variables are determined in the market. In standard US practice, however, the closely related capitalising of NOI is confounded with the DCF method under the general classification of the income capitalization approach (see above).
3. Accounts/profits method. Used for trading properties where evidence of rates is slight, such as hotels, restaurants and old-age homes. A three-year average of operating income (derived from the profit and loss or income statement) is capitalised using an appropriate yield. Note that since the variables used are inherent to the property and are not market-derived, therefore unless appropriate adjustments are made, the resulting value will be Value-in-Use or Investment Value, not Market Value.
4. Development/residual method. Used for properties ripe for development or redevelopment or for bare land only.
5. Contractor's/cost method. Used for only those properties not bought and sold on the market. Both the development/residual method and the contractor's/cost method would be grouped in the US under the cost approach (see above).

Sifat Umum dari Investasi Dalam Bidang Property
Keuntungan yang dapat diraih pada investasi dibidang properti:
1. Income (Pendapatan)
2. Appreciation (Kenaikan Nilai)
3. Added Value (Penambahan Nilai)

Pasar Property mempunyai ciri-ciri :

a. Immobility, properti tidak mudah untuk dipindahkan atau direlokasikan
b. Heterogenity, properti masing2 memiliki karakteristik yang unik dan berbeda satu dengan lainnya
c. Unliquid, properti tidak mudah untuk secepatnya ditukar dalam bentuk uang
d. Durability, properti merupakan bahan tahan lama
e. Legal complexity, terkait dengan aspek legal yg berhubungan dengan hak penguasaan


Hubungan antara harga, prospek pembeli dan waktu menjual dapat digambarkan sbb: Harga tinggi - Tidak ada pembeli - tidak dapat dijual
 Harga wajar - Hanya ada satu pembeli - 60 hari s/d 90 hari
 Harga rendah - Ada banyak calon pembeli - 15 s/d 59 hari
 Harga murah - banyak sekali pembeli - dapat dijual segera


Informasi Pasar Property
Informasi pasar properti dapat diperoleh dari :
1. Agen properti
2. Penilai / Appraiser
3. Iklan dan berita dari surat kabar
4. Laporan agen properti
5. Laporan lembaga keuangan
6. Informasi dari kantor pemerintah




Types of ownership interest

Implicit in the analysis of the subject property is a determination of the interest in the property being appraised. For most common situations (e.g. -- mortgage finance) the fee simple interest is explicitly assumed since it is the most complete bundle of rights available. However, in many situations, and in many societies which do not follow English Common Law or the Napoleanic Code, some other interest may be more common. While there are many different possible interests in real estate, the three most common are:
• Fee simple value (known in the UK as freehold) - The most complete ownership in real estate, subject in common law countries to the powers reserved to the state (taxation, escheat, eminent domain, and police power)
• Leased fee value - This is simply the fee simple interest encumbered by a lease. If the lease is at market rent, then the leased fee value and the fee simple value are equal. However, if the tenant pays more or less than market, the residual owned by the leased fee holder, plus the market value of the tenancy, may be more or less than the fee simple value.
• Leasehold value - The interest held by a tenant. If the tenant pays market rent, then the leasehold has no market value. However, if the tenant pays less than market, the difference betweent the present value of what is paid and the present value of market rents would be a positive leasehold value. For example, a major chain retailer may be able to negotiate a below-market lease to serve as the anchor tenant for a shopping center. This leasehold value may be transferrable to another anchor tenant, and if so the retail tenant has a positive interest in the real estate.

Penilai harus mengetahui tujuan penilaian, hal ini penting karena berpengaruh pada jenis nilai dan metode penilaian yang digunakan. Misalnya tujuan penilaian untuk jaminan pelunasan hutang nilai yang dibutuhkan adalah nilai Pasar dan nilai Likuidasi.

Nilai Pasar
adalah Estimasi jumlah uang pada tanggal penilaian yang dapat diperoleh dari transaksi jual beli atau hasil penukaran suatu aset antara pembeli yang berminat membeli dan penjual yang berminat menjual dalam suatu transaksi bebas ikatan, yang pemasarannya dilakukan secara layak, dimana kedua pihak masing-masing mengetahui, bertindak hati-hati dan tanpa paksaan.(SPI 2007)


Nilai Jual paksa (Forced sale value)
didefinisikan sebagai sejumlah uang yang mungkin diterima dari penjualan suatu properti dalam jangka waktu yang relatif pendek , untuk dapat memenuhi jangka waktu pemasaran dalam definisi nilai pasar. Pada beberapa situasi Nilai Jual Paksa dapat melibatkan penjual yang tidak berminat menjual, dan pembeli yang membeli dengan mengetahui situasi yang tidak menguntungkan penjual.(SPI 2007)


Penggunaan Terbaik dan tertinggi (Highest & Best use)
didefinisikan sebagai penggunaan yang paling layak dan optimal dari suatu aset,yang secara fisik dimungkinkan,dapat dibenarkan secara wajar,secara hukum sah,secara financial layak dan menghasilkan nilai tertinggi


Biaya Reproduksi Baru(RCN)
adalah jumlah uang yang dikeluarkan untuk reproduksi/pengganti properti yang dihitung berdasarkan harga pasaran setempat sekarang/pada tanggal penilaiannya untuk bahan / material atau unit, biaya jasa kontraktor/arsitek/konsultan teknik termasuk keuntungan, biaya instalasi,biaya supervisi,biaya tenaga ahli teknik termasuk semua pengeluaran standart, yang berkaitan dengan angkutan,asuransi,pondasi,bea masuk,PPN,PPh impor dan biaya bunga selama masa konstruksi tetapi tidak termasuk biaya upah lembur dan premi/bonus.


Pengertian umum propertiProperty adalah konsep hukum mengenai benda berwujud (tangible) dan tidak berwujud (intangible) yang mempunyai nilai


Properti terdiri dari :
1. Real Properti
2. Personal properti
3. Kegiatan Usaha (Business)
4. Hak kepemilikan secara Financial (Financial interest)




Governing authorities and professional organizations
Malaysia
In Malaysia, real estate appraisal is known as Property Valuer. Valuer is a professional who has been educated and trained to determine the value of fixed property, execute feasibility studies and provide expert advice on property related matters. An independent Valuer can provide impartial and motivated reports on the value of real or limited rights in land.
The Valuer requires a combination of a number of professional qualities and capabilities, and needs a thorough knowledge and understanding of the interacting influences which create, maintain or diminish the value of property or rights therein. The Valuer does not invent value, but interprets market forces, which determine the value. Valuer is a profession closely related to real estate. A Valuer determines the value of property based upon market conditions at a given time.
One of the frequent applications of the Valuer's skill is to determine values for purchase or sale, and for insurance purposes.
Valuers are qualified to undertake valuations in all classes of properties, including commercial and industrial properties; all types of residential properties, agricultural and special use properties. However, most Valuers tend to specialize and do not undertake the full range of valuations. It is therefore vitally important for clients to select and appoint a registered Valuer with the relevant practical experience required to undertake the specific valuation.
While it is essential as professional, the Valuers are governed by The Board of Valuers, Appraisers and Estate Agents under provision of Valuers, Appraisers and Estate Agents Act 1981. Its primary function is to regulate the Valuers, Appraisers and Estate Agents practicing in Malaysia.

Prinsip-Prinsip dalam Penilaian terdiri dari :

1. Highest and best use (Penggunaan terbaik dan tertinggi) Nilai suatu tanah kosong dimungkinkan lebih tinggi dari tanah yang ada bangunannya. Ada 2 kriteria yg menentukan penggunaan HBU yaitu Permintaan dan peraturan untuk peruntukan

2. Suppy & demand (persediaan dan permintaan) Properti mempunyai nilai apabila properti tsb dapat digunakan. Nilai akan naik bila pesediaan tanah berkurang, dimana orang memerlukan tanah. Misalnya didaerah yang padat penduduknya.

3. Substitusi (Pinsip pengganti) Pembeli suatu properti tidak akan membayar lebih terhadap suatu properti dibandingkan dengan biaya pembelian properti lain yang sama, artinya properti yang lebih murah yang akan terjual lebih dahulu.

4. Anticipation (prinsip keuntungan yg diharapkan properti) Nilai suatu properti adalah harapan akan keuntungan dimasa yang akan datang akan High and best use / penggunaan dari properti tersebut.

5. Change(Perubahan) Nilai selalu berubah-ubah dan dipengaruhi oleh banyak variabel antara lain jumlah penduduk, perubahan kondisi ekonomi, adanya pusat perbelanjaan baru, perubahan politik negara dll.

6. Conformity(kesesuaian) Properti yg terletak dilingkungan yang cocok baik sosial maupun ekonomi akan mempunyai nilai yang maksimum.

7. Competition (Prinsip persaingan) Semua bentuk usaha menginginkan mendapatkan keuntungan.properti tidak terkecuali.Bila permintaan besar akan suatu properi developer akan mendapat keuntungan yang besar. Developer lain akan masuk ke lokasi tsb. Maka timbul persaingan dan keuntungan akan turun. Nilai properti akan dipengaruhi oleh tingkat persaingan tsb.

8. Increasing and decreation return (penambahan dan pengurangan pendapatan) Prinsip dasar ekonomi mengatakan bahwa pertambahan biaya pada suatu usaha belum tentu memberikan penambahan dalam pendapatan.Demikian juga dalam usaha dibidang properti berlaku juga kondisi bahwa penambahan biaya pada suatu properti belum tentu akan menambah penghasilan properti tsb. Nilai properti tersebut tidak bertambah, bahkan akan berkurang/turun.

9. Consisten use(penggunaan yang tetap) Tanah dan bangunan harus dinilai sesuai dengan penggunaan yang sesuai dengan peruntukannya..Properti harus dinilai berdasarkan penggunaan yang pasti.

Dalam kenyataannya, nilai dapat dipengaruhi oleh beberapa factor yang mengakibatkan nilai tersebut naik / turun. Faktor tersebut adalah :

1. Faktor fisik, alam dan lingkungan
– Yang mencakup antara lain iklim dan topografi, tingkat kesuburan tanah, sumber mineral dan banjir

2. Faktor Sosial
– Yang mencakup populasi penduduk, perubahan kepadatan, distribusi geografis atas kelompok ras masyarakat dan perkembangan pendidikan dan aktivitas sosial
3. Faktok politik dan kebijaksanaan Pemerintah
– Yg mencakup peruntukan, rencana tatakota, pembatasan pendirian bangunan, Kredit Perumahan Rakyat

4. Faktor Ekonomi
– Baik ekonomi mikro maupun makro yg. mencakup tingkat pengangguran, perubahan gaji pegawai, perluasan sektor industri, perubahan tingkat bunga bank dll.




Governing authorities and professional organizations
International
The various US and international professional organizations have started collaborating in recent years towards the development of International Valuation Standards which will facilitate global real estate appraisal, a much-needed adjunct to real estate investment portfolios which transcend national boundaries.
The IVSC - The International Valuation Standards Committee, is a Non-governmental Organisation (NGO) member of the UN, with membership that encompasses all the major national valuation standard-setters and professional associations from 41 different countries (including the Appraisal Institute, the RICS and the Appraisal Institute of Canada). IVSC have published the International Valuation Standards (IVS), now in their 8th edition.

Dari banyak istilah nilai, beberapa yang dikenal masyarakat adalah :

Nilai Pasar (Market Value) adalah perkiraan jumlah uang pada tanggal penilaian, yang dapat diperoleh dari transaksi jual beli atau hasil penukaran suatu asset, antara pembeli yang berminat membeli dengan penjual yang berminat menjual, dalam suatu transaksi bebas ikatan, yang penawarannya dilakukan secara layak dan kedua pihak masing-masing mengetahui, bertindak hati-hati dan tanpa paksaan


Nilai pasar untuk penggunaan yang ada (Market value for existing use) adalahh nilai pasar dari suatu asset berdasarkan kelanjutan dari penggunaan yang ada, dengan asumsi bahwa asset tersebut dapat dijual di pasar terbuka untuk penggunaan yagn ada saat itu, tetapi tetap sesuai dengan definisi nilai pasar tanpa memperhitungkan apakah penggunaan yang ada menggambarkan penggunaan terbaik dan tertinggi dari asset tersebut.


Nilai asuransi (Insurable value) adalah nilai property sebagaimana yang diterapkan berdasarkan kondisi-kondisi yang dinyatakan di dalam kontrak atau polis asuransi dan dituangkan dalam definisi yang jelas dan terinci


Nilai Buku (Book Value) adalah biaya perolehan (historical cost) yang dikurangi dengan sejumlah penyusutan yang telah dibebankan yang muncul selama umur penggunaan asset tersebut.


Nilai investasi (investment value) adalah nilai dari suatu perusahaan atau saham (business interest) atau kepentingan dalam perusahaan yang bersifat spesifik terhadap seorang investor, didasarkan pada atau terkait dengan persyaratan tertentu dari seorang atau kelompok investor


Nilai jual paksa (forced sale value) adalah sejumlah uang yang mungkin diterima dari penjualan suatu property dalam jangka waktu yang relative pendek untuk dapat memenuhi jangka waktu pemasaran dalam definisi nilai pasar. Pada beberapa situasi nilai jual paksa dapat melibatkan penjual yang tidak berminat menjual, dan pembeli yang membeli dengan mengetahui situasi yang tidak menguntungkan penjual.


Nilai kena pajak (assessed, rateable, taxable value) adalah nilai berdasarkan definisi yang tertuang dalam peraturan perundang-undangan yang berlaku berkaitan dengan penetapan, tarif dan atau penentuan pajak property. Walaupun beberapa peraturan perundang-undangan mungkin mengutip nilai pasar sebagai dasar dari perkiraan, metodologi penilaian yang diisyaratkan mungkin memberikan hasil yang berbeda dari nilai pasar seperti yang telah didefiniskan diatas. Nilai kena pajaka adalah bukan nilai pasar.


Nilai Khusus (special Value) adalah nilai yang diperoleh karena unsur luar biasa dari nilai sehingga melebihi nilai pasar. Nilai khusu dapat terjadi misalnya oleh karena kaitan fisik, fungsi, atau ekonomi dari property dengan property lainnya seperty property yang berkesinambungan.


Nilai perusahaan sebagai usaha yang berjalan (Going Concern Value) adalah nilai suatu usaha secara keseluruhan.


Nilai realisasi bersih (net realizable value) adalah perkiraan harga jual suatu asset dalam suatu usaha yang berjalan sebagimana biasa, dikurangi biaya penjualan dan biaya penyelesaian.


Nilai sekrap (Scrap value) adalah perkiraan jumlah uang yang akan diperoleh dari transaksi jual beli dari bagian-bagian/material suatu property (tidak termasuk tanah) tidak untuk suatu kegunaan yang produktif.





Types of value

There are several types and definitions of value sought by a real estate appraisal. Some of the most common are:
• Market Value – The price at which an asset would trade in a competitive Walrasian auction setting. Market Value is usually interchangeable with Open Market Value or Fair Value. International Valuation Standards (IVS) define Market Value as:
Market Value is the estimated amount for which a property should exchange on the date of valuation between a willing buyer and a willing seller in an arms-length transaction after proper marketing wherein the parties had each acted knowledgably, prudently, and without compulsion.[2]
• Value-in-use – The net present value (NPV) of a cash flow that an asset generates for a specific owner under a specific use. Value-in-use is the value to one particular user, and is usually below the market value of a property.
• Investment value - is the value to one particular investor, and is usually higher than the market value of a property.
• Insurable value - is the value of real property covered by an insurance policy. Generally it does not include the site value.
• Liquidation value -- may be analyzed as either a forced liquidation or an orderly liquidation and is a commonly sought standard of value in bankruptcy proceedings. It assumes a seller who is compelled to sell after an exposure period which is less than the market-normal timeframe.

 Harga adalah sejumlah uang yang diminta,ditawarkan atau dibayarkan untuk suatu barang atau jasa.

 Biaya adalah sejumlah uang yang dikeluarkan atas barang atau jasa atau jumlah yang dibutuhkan untuk menciptakan atau memproduksi barang atau jasa tersebut.


 Nilai adalah Konsep ekonomi yang merujuk pada hubungan financial antara barang dan jasa yang tersedia untuk dibeli dan mereka yang membeli dan menjualnya. Nilai bukan merupakan fakta, tapi lebih merupakan perkiraan manfaat ekonomi atas barang dan jasa pada suatu waktu tertentu dalam hubungannya dengan definisi nilai tertentu.

 Pasar adalah sistem dan atau tempat barang dan jasa diperdagangkan antara pembeli dan penjual melalui mekanisme harga.

Ciri-ciri dari nilai :
 Bila dibutuhkan
 Ada permintaan
 Ada kelangkaan
 Dapat dijadikan sejumlah uang




Price versus value
It is important to distinguish between Market Value and Price. A price obtained for a specific property under a specific transaction may or may not represent that property's market value: special considerations may have been present, such as a special relationship between the buyer and the seller, or else the transaction may have been part of a larger set of transactions in which the parties had engaged. Another possibility is that a special buyer may have been willing to pay a premium over and above the market value, if his subjective valuation of the property (its investment value for him) was higher than the Market Value. An example of this would be the owner of a neighbouring property who, by combining his own property with the subject property, could thereby obtain economies-of-scale. Such situations often arise in corporate finance, as for example when a merger or acquisition is concluded at a price which is higher than the value represented by the price of the underlying stock. The usual rationale for these valuations would be that the 'sum is greater than its parts', since full ownership of a company entails special privileges for which a potential purchaser would be willing to pay. Such situations arise in real estate/property markets as well. It is the task of the real estate appraiser/property valuer to judge whether a specific price obtained under a specific transaction is indicative of Market Value.

Di dalam penilaian aset terhadap tanah, perlu dipertimbangkan kegunaan dan manfaatnya saat sekarang dan prospek ke depan. Tanah akan bernilai tinggi apabila mempunyai kegunaan yang optimal. Mengapa harga tanah di daerah perkotaan lebih cepat naik dibandingkan tanah di daerah pedesaan ? mungkin karena tanah di kota terbatas? atau sarana publik lebih lengkap? Bagaimana bila tanah di desa mempunyai sumber alam yang sangat dibutuhkan manusia?

Sifat tanah yang menentukan penggunaan tanah. Beberapa sifat dan karakter yang mempengaruhi peruntukan tanah, yaitu :
- Bentuk kontur dan ketinggian
Tanah yang berkontur nilainya cenderung lebih rendah dibandingkan dengan dengan tanah datar. Walaupun dalam kasus tertentu, tanah berkontur cocok untuk suatu aset property yang menjual view, contoh villa di daerah Puncak, mempunyai view bagus akan lebih mahal dibandingkan villa dengan view datar.

- Keadaan iklim, misalnya angin dan kelembaban
Suatu daerah dengan tingkat kelembaban tinggi, dan terletak di ketinggian tertentu, peruntukannya akan sangat cocok untuk perkebunan bila dibandingkan untuk kawasan industri.

- Transportasi
Tanah yang terletak tepat dipinggir jalan besar, dengan intensitas pemakaian jalan tinggi, akan sangat cocok diperuntukkan sebagai komersial area dibandingkan dengan bila dibangun rumah tinggal

- Perbaikan-perbaikan sarana publik, misalnya : Jalan, Taman, Pedestrian dsb
- Tersedianya sumber-sumber alam, misalnya : Air, Pertambangan

Dari uraian diatas dapat diambil suatu kesimpulan bahwa, Tanah akan lebih bernilai apabila dibangun dengan peruntukan yang sesuai.




Governing authorities and professional organizations
United Kingdom
Further information: Chartered surveyors in the United Kingdom
In the UK, real estate appraisal is known as property valuation and a real estate appraiser is a land valuer or property valuer (usually a qualified chartered surveyor who specialises in property valuation). Property valuation in the UK is regulated by the Royal Institution of Chartered Surveyors (RICS), a professional body encompassing all of the building and property-related professions. The RICS professional guidelines for valuers are published in the RICS Appraisal and Valuation Standards, commonly known as the Red Book. While based in the UK, RICS is a global organization and has become very active in the US in recent years through its affiliation with the Counselors of Real Estate, a division of the National Association of Realtors.

Mesin sebagai real property dapat dibagi menjadi 2 golongan yaitu
- Mesin dan peralatan Industri (personal property)
- Mesin dan peralatan bangunan (real property


Definisi

a. Mesin dan peralatan Industri
Adalah segala kelengkapan fisik yang dipergunakan dalam suatu kegiatan industri termasuk instalasi dan peralatan penunjang lainnya yang berkaitan secara keseluruhan membentuk suatu kesatuan kerja

b. Mesin dan peralatan bangunan
Adalah segenap mesin dan perlatan yang melengkapi bangunan dan berfungsi untuk memberikan kemudahan, kenyamanan serta keamanan bagi pengguna bangunan tersebut.


Pada saat penilaian, sering dijumpai kesulitan dalam pengelompokkan suatu mesin apakah masuk ke dalam mesin bangunan atau mesin industri.


Sehingga yang harus diperhatikan apabila kita dalam melakukan penilaian mengalami hal tersebut adalah fungsi dari mesin tersebut, apakah untuk kepentingan suatu kegiatan produksi ataukah untuk kepentingan bangunan.


Misal, dalam penilaian mesin atas system pendingin udara, pada umumya termasuk dalam mesin dan peralatan bangunan, akan tetapi jenis industri tertentu seperti pharmasi dan kimia, memerlukan temperature ruangan yang rendah, sehingga system pendingin udara yang dipasang digolongkan sebagai mesin-mesin industri


Secara umum, kapasitas mesin dan peralatan bangunan lebih sederhana dan lebih kecil bila dibandingkan dengan mesin industri, sehingga akan mempermudah proses penilaian.

Governing authorities and professional organizations
Israel
In Israel, the real estate appraisal profession is regulated by the Council of Land Valuers, an organ of the Ministry of Justice; the largest professional organisation, encompassing the majority of appraisers/land valuers is the Association of Land Valuers. Valuers must be registered with the Council, which is a statutory body set up by law, and which oversees the training and administers the national professional exams that are a prerequisite for attaining registration. In 2005 the Council set up a Valuation Standards Committee with the purpose of developing and promulgating Standards that would reflect best practice; these have tended to follow a rules-based approach.
Historically, most valuations in Israel were statutory valuations (such as valuations performed for purposes of Betterment Tax - a tax administered on any gains accruing to the property by way of changes to the local planning) as well as valuations performed for purposes of bank lending. This is now changing: since the adoption in Israel of International Financial Reporting Standards (IFRS) (were adopted in 2006; will fully come into effect in 2008), the profession has been additionally engaged in performing valuations for purposes of financial reporting.

Penilaian aset sangat dibutuhkan, ketika nasabah suatu bank mengalami pailit dan asetnya menjadi jaminan / agunan bank. Disini nilai yang dikeluarkan seorang penilai akan menjadi dasar pihak bank untuk melakukan penyitaan sekaligus pelelangan. Semisal aset yang menjadi jaminan bank yang akan dilelang, adalah gedung perkantoran - bentuk property merupakan 1 bangunan utuh, tentunya penilaian akan memunculkan satu nilai saja yaitu nilai pasar. Akan tetapi apabila seorang developer mengalami pailit atas usahanya, sedangkan aset yang menjadi jaminan adalah suatu perumahan dengan jumlah unit rumah yang cukup banyak. Apakah hanya muncul 1 nilai saja?

Pertimbangan nilai yang dimunculkan atas jumlah kavling yang dimunculkan adalah :
- Aset tersebut akan dilelang/dijual dengan total seluruh kavling yang ada / ”borongan”
- Aset tersebut dijual dengan bentuk satuan/ ”eceran”

Tentu seseorang buyer akan membeli unit kavling dengan jumlah banyak cenderung lebih murah dibanding pembelian seseorang dengan jumlah per-satuan unit kavling. Apabila ini terjadi, padahal nilai yang dibutuhkan adalah nilai pasar, maka akan muncul 2 nilai pasar untuk 1 laporan ? nah bagaimana...?

Governing authorities and professional organizations
Germany
In Germany, real estate appraisal is known as real estate valuation (Immobilienbewertung). Real estate appraisers (Immobilienbewerter or Gutachter) can qualify to become a Öffentlich bestellter und vereidigter Sachverständiger (officially appointed and sworn expert). However, this formerly very important title has lost a lot of its importance over the past years, but still is of some value in court procedures. The title is not generally required for appraisals.
Governing authorities
The real estate appraisal practice in Germany is partly codified by law. The federal Baugesetzbuch (abbr. BauGB, "German statutory code on building and construction'") contains guidelines on governing authorities, defines the term market value and refers to continuative rules (chapter 3, articles 192 ff.). Each municipality (city or administrative district) has to form a Gutachterausschuss (appraisal committee), consisting of a chairman and honorary members [10]. The committee gathers information on all real estate deals (it is mandatory to send a copy of each notarial purchase contract to the Gutachterausschuss) and includes it in the Kaufpreissammlung (purchase price database). Most committees publish an official real estate market report every two years, in which besides other information on comparables the land value is determined. The committees also perform appraisals on behalf of public authorities.
Federal regulations
The BauGB defines the Verkehrswert or Marktwert (market value, both terms with identical meaning) as follows: "The market value is determined by the price that can be realised at the date of valuation, in an arm's length transaction, with due regard to the legal situation and the effective characteristics, the nature and lay of the premises or any other subject of the valuation" [11] (non-official translation). The intention, as in other countries, is to include all objective influences and to exclude all influences resulting from the subjective circumstances of the involved parties.
This federal law is supported by the Wertermittlungsverordnung (abbr. WertV, "regulation on the determination of value") [12]. The WertV defines the codified valuation approaches and the general valuation technique. German codified valuation approaches (other apporaches such as DCF or residual approach are also permitted, but not codified) are the:
• Vergleichswertverfahren (sales comparison approach) - used where good evidence of previous sales is available and for owner-occupied assets, especially condominiums and single-family houses;
• Ertragswertverfahren (German income approach) - standard procedure for property that produces future cash flows from the letting of the property;
• Sachwertverfahren (German cost approach) - used for specialised property where none of the above approaches applies, e. g. public buildings.
WertV's general regulations are further supported by the Wertermittlungsrichtlinie (abbr. WertR, "directive on the determination of value") [13]. The WertR provides templates for calculations, tables (e. g. economic depreciation) and guidelines for the consideration of different influences. WertV and WertR are not binding for appraisals for nonofficial use, nonetheless they should be regarded as best practice or Generally Accepted (German) Valuation Practice (GAVP).
Comments on German GAVP
In most regards Generally Accepted (German) Valuation Principles is consistent with international practice. The investment market weighs the income approach most heavily. However, there are some important differences:
• Land and improvements are treated separately. German GAVP assumes that the land can be used indefinitely, but the buildings have a limited lifespan; This coincides with the balancing of the assets. The value of the land is determined by the sales comparison approach in both the income and cost approaches, using the data accumulated by the Gutachterausschuss which is then added to the building value.
• In order to account for the usage of the land, the net operating income is reduced by the Liegenschaftszins (interest paid to the land-owner by the owner of the building, i.e. ground rent). The Liegenschaftszins is the product of the land value and the Liegenschaftszinssatz (interest rate for land-use). The Liegenschaftszinssatz is the equivalent of the yield - with some important differences - and is also determined by the Gutachterausschuss.
• Unlike the All Risks Yield (ARY) in UK practice, the Liegenschaftszinssatz (abbr. LZ) does not include an allowance for default (not to be confused with structural vacancy), therefore this needs to be subtracted from gross operating income. As a result, the Liegenschaftszinssatz will usually be lower than the All Risks Yield.
• Based on the assumption that the economic life of the improvements is limited, the yield and remaining economic life determine the building value from the net operating income.
• It should also be observed that contracts in Germany generally prescribe that the landlord bears a higher portion of maintenance and operating costs than their counterparts in the US and UK.
Criticism
Mathematically the distinction between land and improvements in the income approach will have no impact on the overall value when the remaining economic life is more than thirty years. For this reason it has become quite common to use the Vereinfachtes Ertragswertverfahren (simplified income approach), omitting the land value and the Liegenschaftszins. However, the separate treatment of land and buildings leads to more precise results for older buildings, especially for commercial buildings, which typically have a shorter economic life than residential buildings.
An advantage of the comparatively high degree of standardization practiced by professional appraisers, is the greater ability to check an appraisal for inconsistency, accuracy and transparency.
Professional organisations
The Federal German Organisation of Appointed and Sworn Experts (Bundesverband Deutscher Sachverständiger und Fachgutachter, abbr. BDSF)[14] is the main professional organisation encompassing the majority of licensed appraisers in Germany. In recent years, with the move towards a more global outlook in the valuation profession, the RICS has gained a foothold in Germany, somewhat at the expense of the BDSF.
With special focus on hypothecary value, in 1996, German banks with real estate financing activities formed the HypZert GmbH[15], an association for the certification of real estate valuers. A HypZert qualification is regarded as mandatory for their appraisers by many German banks.